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Blazon of residential building with a shared entrance and separate apartments inside

Loftier quality tenements in the Hyndland residential area of Glasgow, built 1898 – 1910.[1]

A tenement is a blazon of building shared past multiple dwellings, typically with flats or apartments on each floor and with shared entrance stairway access, on the British Isles notably common in Scotland. In the medieval Old Town, in Edinburgh, tenements were developed with each flat treated as a separate house, congenital on top of each other (such as Gladstone'due south Land). Over hundreds of years, custom grew to become police force concerning maintenance and repairs, as first formally discussed in Stair'due south 1681 writings on Scots property law.[2] In Scotland, these are now governed by the Tenements Act, which replaced the old Law of the Tenement and created a new system of common ownership and procedures concerning repairs and maintenance of tenements. Tenements with 1 or two room flats provided popular rented adaptation for workers, but in some inner-city areas, overcrowding and maintenance bug led to slums, which have been cleared and redeveloped. In more than flush areas, tenement flats class spacious privately owned houses, some with up to 6 bedrooms, which keep to exist desirable properties.[1]

In the Usa, the term tenement initially meant a big building with multiple small spaces to rent. As cities grew in the nineteenth century, at that place was increasing separation between rich and poor. With rapid urban growth and immigration, overcrowded houses with poor sanitation gave tenements a reputation as slums.[3] The expression "tenement house" was used to designate a building subdivided to provide cheap rental accommodation, which was initially a subdivision of a large house. Beginning in the 1850s, purpose-built tenements of upwardly to six stories held several households on each flooring.[4] Various names were introduced for better dwellings, and eventually modern apartments predominated in American urban living.[3]

In parts of England, especially Devon and Cornwall, the discussion refers to an outshot, or additional projecting part at the back of a terraced house, normally with its own roof.[5]

History [edit]

The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. The New York State legislature defined it in the Tenement House Act of 1867 in terms of rental occupancy by multiple households, as

Any house, building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let, or hired out to be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families living independently of one some other and doing their ain cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon a floor, so living and cooking and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies, or some of them.[vii]

In Scotland, it continues to be the nigh common word for a multiple-occupancy building, only elsewhere it is used equally a debasing in dissimilarity to flat edifice or block of flats.[8] Tenement houses were either adapted or congenital for the working class every bit cities industrialized,[ix] and came to be contrasted with middle-class flat houses, which started to get stylish later in the 19th century. Late-19th-century social reformers in the US were hostile to both tenements (for fostering disease, and immorality in the immature) and apartment houses (for fostering "sexual immorality, sloth, and divorce").[10]

Specific places [edit]

New York [edit]

Side Sectional View of Tenement House, 38 Blood-red Street, N.Y., 1865

As the United states of america industrialized during the 19th century, immigrants and workers from the countryside were housed in erstwhile eye-course houses and other buildings, such equally warehouses, which were bought up and divided into small dwellings.[11] [12] Commencement equally early on every bit the 1830s in New York Metropolis's Lower East Side[9] or possibly the 1820s on Mott Street,[13] three- and four-story buildings were converted into "railroad flats," so chosen considering the rooms were linked together like the cars of a train,[xiv] with windowless internal rooms. The adapted buildings were also known as "rookeries," and these were a particular business organization, as they were prone to collapse and fire. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear.[13] In both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal h2o taps and water closets (either privies or "school sinks," which opened into a vault that often became clogged) were squeezed into the small open spaces between buildings.[xiv] In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards, generally occupied by machine shops, stables, and other businesses.[xv]

Such tenements were specially prevalent in New York, where in 1865 a report stated that 500,000 people lived in unhealthy tenements, whereas in Boston in 1845, less than a quarter of workers were housed in tenements.[9] One reason New York had so many tenements was the large numbers of immigrants; some other was that the grid plan on which streets were laid out, and the economic practice of building on individual 25- by 100-foot lots, combined to produce high land coverage.[16] Prior to 1867, tenements often covered more than 90 pct of the lot, were five or six stories high, and had eighteen rooms per floor, of which merely ii received direct sunlight. Yards were a few feet wide and frequently filled with privies. Interior rooms were unventilated.[14]

Early in the 19th century, many of the poor were housed in cellars, which became even less germ-free after the Croton Aqueduct brought running water to wealthier New Yorkers: the reduction in well utilise caused the h2o table to rise, and the cellar dwellings flooded. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and starting time in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline.[17]

The airshaft of a dumbbell tenement, ca. 1900

The Tenement House Act of 1866, the country legislature'south first comprehensive legislation on housing weather condition, prohibited cellar apartments unless the ceiling was one foot above street level; required i water cupboard per 20 residents and the provision of burn down escapes; and paid some attention to space betwixt buildings.[18] This was amended by the Tenement House Human activity of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. As of 1869, New York State law divers a "tenement house" as "whatever house or edifice, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased let or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied as the home or residence of 3 families or more than living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon the premises, or by more than than ii families upon any floor, so living and cooking, but having a right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them." L 1867, ch 908.[nineteen] The New York Metropolis Lath of Health was empowered to enforce these regulations, but information technology declined to practice so. As a compromise, the "Erstwhile Law tenement" became the standard: this had a "dumbbell" shape, with air and low-cal shafts on either side in the center (normally fitted to the shafts in the adjacent buildings), and it typically covered 80 pct of the lot.[20] James E. Ware is credited with the design;[21] he had won a contest the previous year held by Plumber and Sanitary Engineer Magazine to observe the most applied improved tenement design, in which profitability was the nearly important factor to the jury.[22]

Public business near New York tenements was stirred past publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis's How the Other Half Lives ,[23] and in 1892 past Riis's The Children of the Poor. [24] The New York Land Assembly Tenement Business firm Committee report of 1894 surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents and found New York to exist the most densely populated metropolis in the earth, at an average of 143 people per acre, with role of the Lower E Side having 800 residents per acre, denser than Bombay. It used both charts and photographs, the beginning such official employ of photographs.[25] Together with the publication in 1895 by the US Department of Labor of a special study on housing atmospheric condition and solutions elsewhere in the earth, The Housing of Working People, it ultimately led to the passage of the Tenement House Human activity of 1901, known as the New Constabulary, which implemented the Tenement House Committee's recommendation of a maximum of lxx percent lot coverage and mandated strict enforcement, specified a minimum of 12 feet for a rear grand and 6 feet for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 anxiety in the middle of the building (all of these being increased for taller buildings), and required running water and water closets in every apartment and a window in every room. There were also fire-prophylactic requirements. These rules are still the basis of New York City law on depression-rise buildings, and they have made single-lot development uneconomical.[26]

Most of the purpose-built tenements in New York were not slums, although they were not pleasant to be inside, particularly in hot weather, then people congregated outside, made heavy use of the fire escapes, and slept in summer on burn escapes, roofs, and sidewalks.[27]

The Lower Due east Side Tenement Museum, a five-story brick old tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side.

Other famous tenements in the US include tenement housing in Chicago, in which various housing areas were built to the same affect every bit tenements in New York.

Edinburgh and Glasgow [edit]

Tenements in Dumbarton Route, Glasgow

Tenements make up a large percentage of the housing stock of Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland. Glasgow tenements were built to provide high-density housing for the large number of people immigrating to the urban center in the 19th and early on 20th century as a result of the Industrial Revolution, when the urban center's population boomed to more than 1 million people. Edinburgh'south tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were upward to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them amidst the tallest houses in the world at that time.[28] Glasgow tenements were mostly built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located; therefore, virtually are about iii–5 storeys high. Nearly all Glasgow tenements were synthetic using crimson or blonde sandstone, which has become distinctive.

In Edinburgh, residential dwellings in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the medieval Old Town and Georgian New Town (as well as the Victorian urban center centre districts immediately surrounding them) are almost exclusively tenements. The Tenement House celebrated house museum in the Garnethill area of Glasgow preserves the interior, fittings and equipment of a well-kept, upper middle-form tenement from the late 19th century.

Many tenements in Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. Perhaps the most hitting instance of this is seen in the Gorbals, where virtually all the tenements were demolished to make way for belfry blocks, many of which take in turn have been demolished and replaced with newer structures. The Gorbals is an area of approximately 1 kmii and at ane time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. The population at present is roughly 10,000.

Tenement demolition was to a significantly lesser extent in Edinburgh, thus making its after World Heritage designations in 1985 possible. Largely, such clearances were limited to pre-Victorian buildings outwith the New Town expanse and were precipitated by the and then-called "Penny Tenement" incident.[29]

Apartments in tenement buildings in both cities are now oftentimes highly sought after, due to their locations, often large rooms, high ceilings, ornamentation and menstruum features.

Berlin [edit]

Meyers Hof in Berlin, 1910

In German, the term corresponding to tenement is Mietskaserne, "rental barracks", and the city peculiarly known for them is Berlin. In 1930, Werner Hegemann's polemic Das steinerne Berlin (Stony Berlin) referred to the city in its subtitle every bit "the largest tenement urban center in the earth."[30] They were built during a period of corking increases in population between 1860 and 1914, specially subsequently German unification in 1871, in a wide ring enclosing the old city center, sometimes called the Wilhelmian or Wilhelmine Ring. The buildings are almost always five stories high because of the mandated maximum acme.[31] The blocks are large because the streets were required to exist able to handle heavy traffic, and the lots are therefore also big: required to have courtyards large plenty for a burn down truck to plough around, the buildings have front, rear, and cross buildings enclosing several courtyards.[32] [33] Buildings within the courtyards were the location of much of Berlin's industry until the 1920s, and noise and other nuisances affected the apartments, only the best of which had windows facing the street.[34]

Members of a tenants' commonage in front of their tenement building in Eastward Berlin in 1959 (the façade still pockmarked with 1945 battle harm)

One notorious Berlin Mietskaserne was Meyers Hof [de] in Gesundbrunnen,[35] which at times housed 2,000 people and required its ain law officer to keep gild.[36]

Between 1901 and 1920, a Berlin clinic investigated and documented in photographs the living atmospheric condition of its patients, revealing that many lived in damp basements and garrets, spaces nether stairs, and apartments where the windows were blocked by courtyard businesses.[37]

Many apartments in the Wilhelmian Ring were very pocket-sized, only one room and a kitchen.[38] Also, apartments were laid out with their rooms reached via a common internal corridor, which even the Berlin Architects' Association recognized was unhealthy and detrimental to family unit life.[39] Sanitation was inadequate: in a survey of i surface area in 1962, only fifteen percent of apartments had both a toilet and a bathroom or shower; 19 per centum had merely a toilet, and 66 percent shared staircase toilets.[38] Heating was provided past stoves burning charcoal briquettes.[40]

Dublin [edit]

Dublin slum dwellers, 1901

In the 19th and early 20th century, Dublin's tenements (Irish: tionóntán)[41] were infamous, often described as the worst in Europe.[42] Many tenement buildings were originally the Georgian townhouses of upper-class families, neglected and subdivided over the centuries to firm dozens of Dublin'southward poor.[43] Henrietta Street'south fifteen buildings housed 835 people. In 1911 almost 26,000 families lived in inner-metropolis tenements, and xx,000 of these families lived in a single room. Disease was common, with death rates of 22.3 per one thousand (compared with 15.6 for London at the same time).[44]

The plummet of 65–66 Church Street in 1913, which killed seven residents, led to inquiries into housing.[45] A housing committee report of 1914 said,

There are many tenement houses with 7 or viii rooms that house a family in each room and contain a population of between 40 and 50 souls. Nosotros have visited one house that we plant to be occupied past 98 persons, another by 74 and a third by 73.

The entrance to all tenement houses is by a common door off either a street, lane or alley, and, in most cases, the door is never shut, day or night. The passages and stairs are common and the rooms all open directly either off the passages or landings.

Nigh of these houses have yards at the dorsum, some of which are a fair size, while others are very small, and some few houses have no yards at all. By and large, the only water supply of the firm is furnished by a unmarried h2o tap, which is in the chiliad. The yard is common and the closet accommodation [toilet] is to be plant there, except in some few cases in which in that location is no yard, when it is to be establish in the basement where at that place is trivial light or ventilation.

The cupboard adaptation is common not but to the occupants of the house, but to anyone who likes to come up in off the street, and is, of course, common to both sexes. The roofs of the tenement houses are, as a rule, bad . . .

Having visited a large number of these houses in all parts of the city, nosotros have no hesitation in proverb that it is no uncommon affair to observe halls and landings, yards and closets of the houses in a filthy condition, and, in nigh every case, human excreta is to be found scattered about the yards and in the floors of the closets and, in some cases, fifty-fifty in the passages of the firm itself.[46]

Tenement life often appeared in fiction, such as the "Dublin trilogy" of plays by Seán O'Casey, Oliver St. John Gogarty's play Bane, and James Plunkett'southward novel Strumpet City (adapted for goggle box in 1980). 14 Henrietta Street serves as a museum of Dublin tenement life.[47]

The final tenements were closed in the 1970s, families being rehoused in new suburbs such as Ballymun.[48]

Buenos Aires [edit]

In Buenos Aires the tenements, called conventillos, developed from subdividing one- or two-story houses built around courtyards for well-off families. These were long and narrow, three to six times as long as they were wide, and the size of the patios was reduced until as many as 350 people could be living on a lot that had originally housed 25. Purpose-built tenements copied their form. By 1907 there were some 2,500 conventillos, with 150,000 occupants.[49] El conventillo de la Paloma was particularly famous and is the title of a play by Alberto Vaccarezza.

Mumbai [edit]

"Chawls" are plant in India. They are typically iv to five story buildings with 10 to 20 kholis (tenements) on each floor, kholis literally meaning 'rooms'. Many chawl buildings can be found in Bombay, where chawls were synthetic by the thousands to house people migrating to the large city considering of its booming cotton mills and overall strong economy.

A typical chawl tenement consists of one all-purpose room, which functions both as a living and sleeping infinite, and a kitchen which as well serves as a dining room. A frequent exercise is for the kitchen to besides serve as a bedroom for a newly married couple in order to give them some caste of privacy.

Poland [edit]

Tenements in Warsaw One-time Boondocks, Marketplace Square

Kamienica (plural kamienice) is a Smoothen term describing a type of residential tenement building fabricated of brick or stone, with at least two floors. There are two basic types: one designed as a single-family residence, which existed until ca. 1800 (a burgher firm), and the other designed as multi-family housing, which emerged in the 19th century and was the basic blazon of housing in cities. From the architectural bespeak of view, the word is usually used to describe a building that abuts other like buildings forming the street frontage, in the manner of a terraced firm. The ground flooring ofttimes consists of shops and other businesses, while the upper floors are apartments, oftentimes spanning the entire floor. Kamienice accept large windows in the front end, only non in the side walls, since the buildings are close together. The first type of kamienica is most prevalent particularly in centres of historical cities such as Kraków, Poznań, Wrocław, and Toruń, whereas the second type is almost prominent in Łódź. The proper noun derives from the Polish word kamień (stone) and dates from the 15th century.[50] [51] Belatedly 19th century and early 20th century kamienice often took class of city palaces with ornamental facades, high floors and spacious, representative and heavily decorated interiors. Later in the 20th century, especially after the 2nd world war, large apartments would exist divided into several smaller flats due to general lack of habitable infinite acquired by vast destruction of cities, thus lowering the mostly high standard of living in so-chosen grand city tenements (Polish: kamienice wielkomiejskie). Examples of kamienice include Korniakt Palace and Blackness Kamienica in Lviv. Some kamienice in some areas have a reputation for being inhabited by poor people and families that depend on government money and welfare programs to support them; kamienice are often used every bit public housing. Those areas are often considered dangerous. The buildings are frequently neglected, in bad shape (both the exteriors and the interiors), in need of full general renovations, sometimes without access to heating or hot h2o.

See likewise [edit]

  • Cortiço, tenements in Portuguese-speaking countries
  • Urban decay

References [edit]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b Watson, Alex (12 Jan 2018). "xiii surprising things Glasgow is famous for". The Scotsman . Retrieved 28 March 2019. , links to Why Glasgow is the just place in the UK protecting its tenements
  2. ^ Kenneth One thousand. C. Reid; Reinhard Zimmermann (2000). A History of Private Law in Scotland. Oxford Academy Printing. pp. 216–219. ISBN978-0-19-826778-2.
  3. ^ a b Mauch, Jason (14 May 2018). Industrialism. Infobase Publishing. Archived from the original on fourteen May 2018 – via Google Books.
  4. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 665. ISBN978-0415862875.
  5. ^ Shorter Oxford English Lexicon, 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University, 2007, ISBN 0199206872, p. 3804.
  6. ^ "Gladstone's Land". National Trust for Scotland. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2019. a towering testament to tenement life in Edinburgh's Onetime Town. It was once owned past merchant Thomas Gladstone, who extended and remodelled the edifice to create opulently decorated apartments. Gladstone attracted wealthy tenants including William Struther, Minister of St Giles' Cathedral, and Lord Crichton, as well as the high-end grocer John Riddoch, who traded from the ground flooring.
  7. ^ Quoted in Plunz, p. 167.
  8. ^ For instance, Heller, Vivian. The Metropolis Beneath Us: Building the New York Subways, New York Transit Museum, New York: Norton, 2004, ISBN 978-0-393-05797-three, p. 34 Archived 2014-12-08 at the Wayback Auto quotes an Italian mason contrasting the better accommodations for the poor built in New York in response to a 1901 law with tenements: "We didn't call them tenements ... we called them apartment houses, considering that's what they actually were. To u.s.a., a tenement was a dump."
  9. ^ a b c Bauman, p. 6 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  10. ^ Hutchison, Janet. "Shaping Housing and Enhancing Consumption: Hoover'due south Interwar Housing Policy", From Tenements to the Taylor Homes pp. 81–101, p. 83 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  11. ^ Bauman, pp. 5–6.
  12. ^ Fairbanks, Robert B. "From Better Dwellings to Meliorate Neighborhoods: The Rise and Autumn of the Outset National Housing Move," From Tenements to the Taylor Homes pp. 21–42, p. 22 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Car.
  13. ^ a b Plunz, p. 161.
  14. ^ a b c Plunz, p. 164.
  15. ^ Nadel, Stanley. Footling Germany: Ethnicity, Faith, and Class in New York City, 1845-80, Urbana: University of Illinois, 1990, ISBN 0-252-01677-7, p. 34 Archived 2013-05-28 at the Wayback Machine.
  16. ^ Plunz, p. 163.
  17. ^ Plunz, p. 160.
  18. ^ Plunz, pp. 167–68.
  19. ^ "Judge Declines to Extend Definition of "Tenement House" by Andrew Fraser, Esq. | MOULINOS & ASSOCIATES". Archived from the original on 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2016-10-07 .
  20. ^ Plunz, p. 168.
  21. ^ *Howe, Kathy (Jan 2004). "National Register of Historic Places Registration: Maple Grove Cemetery". New York Country Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Archived from the original on 2012-10-xviii. Retrieved 2011-01-12 .
  22. ^ Plunz, pp. 168–69.
  23. ^ Riis, Jacob A., How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York. Repr. ed. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap/Harvard University, 1970.
  24. ^ Riis, 2018 [1892]
  25. ^ Plunz, p. 172.
  26. ^ Plunz, p. 175.
  27. ^ Girouard, pp. 312–xiii.
  28. ^ Chambers, Robert (1824). Notices of the nigh remarkable fires in Edinburgh, from 1385 to 1824, including an account of the great fire of November, 1824. Edinburgh: Smith. p. 11. OCLC 54265692.
  29. ^ "The 'Penny Tenement' plummet that changed Edinburgh forever". scotsman.com.
  30. ^ Hegemann, Werner. Das steinerne Berlin: Geschichte der grössten Mietkasernenstadt der Welt, Berlin: Kiepenheuer, 1930.
  31. ^ Related to the width of the street, merely mostly the maximum, 72 feet: Girouard, p. 329.
  32. ^ Worbs, p. 145.
  33. ^ Girouard, pp. 337–38 says that the blocks had been intended to be subdivided with side streets.
  34. ^ Elkins, pp. 20, 126, 164–67.
  35. ^ Hake, Sabine. Topographies of Course: Modern Architecture and Mass Society in Weimar Berlin, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2008, ISBN 0-472-07038-X, p. thirty.
  36. ^ Reese, Dagmar. Growing Upwards Female in Nazi Germany, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2006, ISBN 0-472-09938-8, p. 165 Archived 2018-05-14 at the Wayback Machine.
  37. ^ Republished equally Hinterhof, Keller und Mansarde: Einblicke in Berliner Wohnungselend 1901–1920, ed. Gesine Asmus, Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1982, ISBN three-499-17668-viii.
  38. ^ a b Elkins, p. 189.
  39. ^ Worbs, p. 146.
  40. ^ Elkins, p. 190.
  41. ^ "fourteen Henrietta Street | Georgian townhouse to tenement abode". 14henriettastreet.ie.
  42. ^ "Life in a single room tenement | Century Republic of ireland". world wide web.rte.ie.
  43. ^ Falvey, Deirdre. "Dublin tenement life: 'I was born right there in 1939'". The Irish Times.
  44. ^ "Exhibition - Poverty and Health". www.demography.nationalarchives.ie.
  45. ^ "Cached alive on Church building Street as houses plummet". contained.
  46. ^ "Life in the tenements was hard and brutal". independent.
  47. ^ Barry, Aoife. ""The street was my playground": A journey back to the tenement days". TheJournal.ie.
  48. ^ Thomas, Cónal. "'A whole history to capture': Dublin's Tenement Museum wants your memories of tenement life". TheJournal.ie.
  49. ^ Girouard, p. 338.
  50. ^ Maria Bogdani-Czepita and Zbigniew Zuziak, Managing Celebrated Cities, Kraków: International Cultural Centre, 1993, ISBN 9788385739074, p. 194 Archived 2018-05-14 at the Wayback Machine.
  51. ^ Tomasz Torbus, Poland, Nelles guides, Munich: Nelles, 2001, ISBN 9783886180882.

Bibliography [edit]

  • Bauman, John F. "Introduction: The Eternal War on the Slums," From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin K. Szylvian, Academy Park: Pennsylvania Country University, 2000, ISBN 0-271-02012-1, pp. 1–17.
  • Elkins, T. H. with Hofmeister, B. Berlin: The Spatial Structure of a Divided City, London/New York: Methuen, 1988, ISBN 0-416-92220-1
  • Girouard, Mark. Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History, New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University, 1985, ISBN 978-0-300-03502-five
  • Plunz, Richard A. "On the Uses and Abuses of Air: Perfecting the New York Tenement, 1850–1901," Berlin/New York: Like and Unlike: Essays on Architecture and Art from 1870 to the Present, ed. Josef Paul Kleihues and Christina Rathgeber, New York: Rizzoli, 1993, ISBN 0-8478-1657-5, pp. 159–79.
  • Riis, Jacob. The Children of the Poor: A Child Welfare Classic, Pittsburgh: TCB Classics, 2018 [1892], ISBN 0-999-66040-3
  • Worbs, Dietrich. "The Berlin Mietskaserne and Its Reforms," Berlin/New York, pp. 144–57.

Farther reading [edit]

  • Huchzermeyer, Marie. Tenement cities: from 19th century Berlin to 21st century Nairobi, Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 2011, ISBN 9781592218578.
  • Kearns, Kevin C. Dublin Tenement Life: An Oral History of the Dublin Slums, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1994, repr. 2006, ISBN 9780717140749.
  • Lubove, Roy. The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement Business firm Reform in New York City, 1890–1917, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963, OCLC 233162.
  • Worsdall, Frank. The Tenement: A Way of Life: A Social, Historical and Architectural Study of Housing in Glasgow, Glasgow: W. and R. Chambers, 1979, ISBN 9780550203526.

Historiography [edit]

  • Polland, Annie. "Ivory Towers and Tenements: American Jewish History, Scholars and the Public," American Jewish History 98 (2014) 41-47: how museums interpret the tenements in New York Metropolis.
  • Steinberg, Adam. "What we talk virtually when we talk near food: Using food to teach history at the Tenement Museum," Public Historian 34.ii (2012) 79-89.

External links [edit]

  • Media related to Tenement houses at Wikimedia Commons
  • Kamienice category at Polish Wikipedia

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